Pilot Fatigue and its role in Aviation Safety Essay Example for Free

Pilot drop and its role in Aviation Safety EssayABSTRACTThe aim of this paper is to observe the growing worry of pilot devolve and the role it plays in aviation safety. A brief assessment of the effects and possible solution to this problem will be carried out. A mention of some of the incidents from the past will also find its place in this paper.Introduction Aviation industry is on a growing fling and in the convictions to come thither ar going to be more and more airlines filling the sky. As we move steps further towards globalisation we argon going to need this service more frequently which further increases the pressure on our airlines. To tackle with this situation, especi in ally when the availability of trained pilots is less(prenominal) than required, the pilots are forced to fly more frequently and for longer hours. This causes physical as well as mental stress to buildup as a result of which the power of pilots decreases. This non-pathologic state resulting in physical and mental stress is know as Fatigue.Human body is ever so in need of rest, especially in the form of sleep, after regular intervals of time. Any lack in the required rest causes fatigue to be developed in ones body. repay equal to(p) to fatigue in that respect corporation be a feeling of sleeplessness, tiredness or exhaustion in a person. This feeling if effective during flight hours can be really wild not only for the pilot scarcely also for the lives of the passengers traveling with him and can cause accidents. The only solution to this problem that has been know so far and will ever be known in the times to come is sufficient amount of sleep. This unfortunately is what the pilots are not acquire these solar days and are not expected to get at least in the near future. The findings from the past stand shown that fatigue was responsible for a bulky number of aviation accidents. According to a study carried out by the National acid Safety Board (NTSB) of flight accidents related to flight conclave in US from 1978 to 1990, one of the findings related the accidents to fatigue by stating that Half the captains for whom data were available had been awake for more than 12 hours prior to their accidents. Half the starting time officers had been awake for more than 11 hours. Crews comprising captains and first officers whose time since awake was above the median for their crew position made more errors overall, and significantly more adjective and tactical decision errors. (Strauss, n.d.).Sleep and Sleep Loss It is necessary for a human body to get the required amount of sleep. Sleep is considered to be an essential ingredient of our life without which it is not possible to survive. Whenever a person does not get enough sleep a signal is sent by head teacher to the body which results in Sleepiness. Eyelids start to get heavier and there is fatigue in the whole body. A person starts to loose concentration and may even go to sleep while he is on a job. If there is a deficiency in sleeping hours of a person and suppose every day a person looses 1 hour of sleep known as Sleep Loss, and then it goes on accumulating over days and results in what is known as Sleep Debt.This debt if not cleared can cause serious problems ultimately resulting in fatigue. It has been found in researches that out front flying a rake it is necessary to have sufficient amount of sleep (about 8 hours) for the pilots. If they are al petty(a)ed to fly continuously without getting the required amount of rest (or sleeping hours) in between their flying schedules, then fatigue is most likely to develop in them resulting in, prejudice of concentration, memory and alertness, slow reaction time, reduced decision power, and heavy(p) mood. All these factors are basic ingredients of making mistakes and thus causing accidents.Crew rest Fatigue starts to build up from the time one gets out of sleep. exploitation of fatigue also depends on the amount of ti me a person was awake before the actual flight operation. Some times there are delays in flight clocks due to several reasons ranging from weather conditions to mechanical problems. This means that a pilot has been on duty for a long time before boarding in the plane.Although he may be flying the plane for the normal length of time but delay in flight timing has resulted in him being involved in the activities for much longer, which also results in the pilot being fatigued. Similarly there may be a effect of airport congestion as a result of which a pilot cannot arena and has to hover in the air for a long time or due to bad whether the plane needs to be redirected to some other destination causing him to fly for longer duration than normal. These instances also cause fatigue to be developed. Overall the fact is that ample amount of rest is essentially required by the human body to keep it fit and fatigue free. A brief review of US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) flight time and rest rules for scheduled domestic commercial carriers (US Code Title 14, divide 121.471) are as follows (Strauss, n.d.).Crewmember total flying time maximum of1000 hours in any calendar year.100 hours in any calendar month.30 hours in any 7 consecutive days.8 hours between required rest periods.Rest for scheduled flight during the 24 hours preceding the completion of any flight segment9 consecutive of hours rest for less than 8 hours scheduled flight time.10 hours rest for 8 hours or more, but less than 9 hours scheduled flight time.11 hours rest for 9 hours or more scheduled flight time.Diet and nutrition People all over the world use coffee as a stimulant to remain awake for longer periods of time. Same is the case with pilots. To remain alert they normally catch coffee. The problem with coffee is that although it keeps a person alert, it cannot prevent body from getting tired and thus fatigued. The body still is in runing condition for all these hours and therefrom the effect of coffee is temporary alertness and not a solution to fatigue. Also coffee is diuretic which means that it discharges more fluids than what it takes in and hence results in dehydration which is a cause of fatigue. It is always good to keep your body fit by exercising but there should be a sufficient amount of rest and consumption of water followed by it as exercises cause a lot of dehydration.However dehydration can also be caused by the fact that inside the cockpit humidity is very. There is always a balanced diet recommended for not only pilots but everyone. A pilot should always ensure a healthy diet which provides sufficient energy as well as nutrients for his body. Hypoglycemia, which is caused by low blood sugar levels, is a study cause of feeling sleepiness. A healthy diet ensures sufficient levels of blood sugar and thus energy, preventing hypoglycemia. Finally, alcohol is known to disrupt sleep dramatically and whence contributes to the poor quantity and quality o f sleep obtained on trip nights. Alternative approaches to the use of alcohol to unwind after duty and promote sleep should be identified and offered (e.g., relaxation skills) (Rosekind, 1994).Other causes of fatigue mavin of the most important factors of causing fatigue, other than sleep debt, is the flight deck environment. Inside the deck there are a lot of factors contributing to fatigue such as lesser availability of space, variation in air flow, low atmospheric pressure, low humidity and presence of a lot of noise and vibration. Also in modern aircrafts a number of additional features and systems have been incorporated which means that the pilots have to handle multiple systems resulting in more stress.History of incidentsThere have been incidents in the past where fatigue has proved to not only be dangerous but also fatal. A legend in aviation refers to an incident when a pilot went to sleep with his autopilot on and found on wake up that the plane was 2 hours from the near est destination with only one hour of fuel left. This may just be a story but in many cases researches have proved fatigue to be a cause of dangerous and fatal accidents. Some of the cases have been listed below-In June 1999 there was a runway accident of American Airlines Flight 1420 in which 11 people died, including the aircraft captain, and many injuries among the 145 passengers and crew aboard the flightKAL Flight 801 crashed in Guam on August 6, 1997, was mainly due to a lack of situational awareness resulting in controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). The captain prior to flying to Guam had flown from Seoul to Australia, back to Seoul, to Hong Kong, and then back to Seoul again before his fateful trip to Guam, including only a few hours of rest in between.Cessna 177B Cardinal was flown by Joe Reid, pilot-in-command in which he, seven-year-old Jessica Dubroff and her sky pilot were killed. He suffered fatigue from the first days flight.On August 18, 1993, a Connie Kalitta DC-8 crashed on a 1/4-mile base leg to final. The flight crew had been on duty for 18 hours and flown nine, thereby experiencing sleep loss and a disruption of their circadian rhythms.On January 2, 1989, the captain of a 707 tried to maneuver his plane to land in Salt Lake City after breaking out of the clouds at 200 feet. He dragged his left, outboard engine on the runway, leaving a 60-foot-long groove. at heart the preceding 30 hours, he had been on duty for 19 hours, and flown 13 hours. He had been off duty for almost 12 hours, but was only able to get one hour of sleep in that time (Printup, 2000).In August 1985, the crew of a Learjet killed themselves and their passenger in a failed approach to Gulkana, Alaska. One of the contributing factors was that the company would shift the crews duty/rest requirements from FAR Part 135 to those of FAR Part 121, thereby disrupting their sleep patterns and inducing fatigue (Printup, 2000).Countermeasuresestablish on several reports a number of countermeasures have been devised to improve alertness to counter fatigue. Preventive measures like 3-4 hours of sleep can posit alertness for 12-15 hours and 10-30 proceedings of sleep can do it for about 3-4 hours. Similarly it is advised to rest for 15-20 minutes after awakening and before flying.Some of other means to restore alertness are-Consumption of high protein diet and less intake of fat and high carbohydrate food.Consumption of large quantities of fluids.Use of caffeine to work against fatigue symptoms if awake for 18 hours or less.Due rotation of flight tasks and frequent conversation with other crewmembersMaintenance of temperature inside the deck to lower levels. normal movement of body parts and a possible walk in the cabin.Gradually shift times for sleep, meals, and exercise to adjust to a new time zone (Strauss, n.d.).ConclusionFor the safety of pilots as well as passengers the issue of pilot fatigue is of major concern. Growing number of aircrafts in the sky al so means longer durations of flight for the pilots, which is a major cause of this problem. History bears the testimony to the fact that fatigue has resulted in numerous aviation accidents resulting in the loss of thousand of lives. To save more lives from getting lost there is a need to solve this problem. Allowing flexible schedules for the pilots is the only viable solution in sentiment at the moment. Our lives are getting busier and it would be wonderful if they become safer as well.ReferencesDawson, Drew and Reid, Kathyryn. (August 1997). Fatigue, Alcohol and Performance Impairment. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.eurocockpit.be/media/Dawson-Reid-1997.pdfDr Samuel Strauss. (n.d.). Pilot Fatigue. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//aeromedical.org/Articles/Pilot_Fatigue.htmlGoode, Jeffrey H. (27 March 2003). ar pilots at risk of accidents due to fatigue?. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.eurocockpit.be/media/Goode-2003.pdfHeath, Brad and Levin, Alan. (N ov. 8, 2007). Fatigue plays role in aviation mistakes. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/news/articles/1108sleepypilots1108.htmlMann, Michael B. (August 3, 1999). Statement of Michael B. Mann Deputy abetter _or_ abettor Administrator Office of Aero-Space Technology National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Hearing on Pilot Fatigue Before the Aviation Subcommittee of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure United States House of Representatives. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.hq.nasa.gov/office/legaff/mann8-3.htmlPrintup, Mark Brandon. (September, 2000). Guest Editorial The Effects Of Fatigue On Performance And Safety. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.airlinesafety.com/editorials/PilotFatigue.htmRosekind, Mark R. (November 1994). Fatigue in Aviation. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//cf.alpa.org/internet/projects/ftdt/alpmag/FATIGUE.htmlSamel, Alexender, Wegmann, Hans Martin and Vejvoda, Martin. (1997) . AIR CREW FATIGUE IN LONG-HAUL OPERATIONS. Retrieved December 1, 2007, from http//www.eurocockpit.be/media/Samel-Wegmann-Veivoda-1997.pdf

Today is a result of yesterday, tomorrow is a result of today Essay Example for Free

now is a head of yesterday, tomorrow is a matter of directly Es set upToday is a declaration of yesterday, tomorrow is a prove of today. To what extent is this statement an apt representation of Buddhistic chastes?Today is a result of yesterday, tomorrow is a result of today. This statement, as a representation of Buddhist ethics, would seem to suggest the realm of ethical put to death is effectively deterministic. This raises many questions about the nature of Buddhist ethics, most signifi faecestly Is this a coherent position? If today is a result of yesterday how dejection champion be tell to be possessed of dethaw will? And if one has no liberal will surely one apprize non be considered a clean-living agent consequently consequently, argon responsible for ones accomplishs. In this essay I will consider the evidence and arguments supporting this interpretation, together with counter-arguments in order to hold forth the statement and reasoning behind th is, resulting in my conclusion that will encompass all these arguments.Firstly I will look at morality in Buddhism as it is a Buddhists ethics which break their behaviour which ultimately affects the results of tomorrow. Classifying Buddhist ethics support be considered an instance of virtue ethics, centred on the brain that the soil of morality is the development of sound character traits which, in Aristotles system for sheath, include intelligence, wisdom (sila), and the ability to discern surrounded by good and bad. Peter Harvey contended that the Mahayana estimate of bright call ups (upaya) is similar to Christian situation ethics be crap it accepts ethical principles be overridden in certain situations in the name of wisdom and bodhichitta. Situation Ethics does not propose rules but rather suggests a guiding principle to decision making Acting morally means acting in the most winning appearance in any situation.Unlike the approach of upaya in Mahayanan Buddhism, s ituation ethics do not ignore or reject traditional set but is bound by them. Both systems whitethorn allow for compassionate killing. There is a story in the suttas of how in one of his last(prenominal) lives the Buddha killed a robber to stop him from killing a number of bodhisattvas and thus prevented the robber from suffering in the hells for aeons. The difference though, is that in Buddhism alone a very in advance(p) bodhisattva is permitted to break with the traditional values, while situation ethics can be applied by anyone with a loving heart This can thus be understood as in Buddhism, a Bodhisattva can act unethically and leave no imprint on the future, yet an unenlightened Buddhists actions will get a negative squeeze. Many religions emphasise the enormousness of the image of good and bad actions, even in Buddhism, pre-determining actions to be good or bad would be a fruitless exercise Buddhists rely that ingenuousness of Dharma is beyond the concepts of good and bad it contains both good and bad unseparated in a pre-conceptual state.Trying to move back half of reality, by definition, would be unachievable, thus trying to remove bad, would be unachievable, and pointless. More than that, the conscious effort to try to remove half of reality is also a kind of affirmation of the existence of just that part that you be proposing to remove. Buddhism does not say that thither is no morality it throw outs the central importance of morals and ethical behavior in all atomic number 18as of life. Although Buddhism believes in right action, it insists that right action is not the same as the Christian concept of right action that moral action does not al counsellings match our conceived notions of morality. Buddhism believes that only this place and this arcminute ar real and all else past and future argon not real existence. It thus come outs that the only place where fill can be right or defile is here and now.So Buddhism emphasizes t hat right and wrong are concerned with the present irregular, here and now. Acting morally means acting right at this very moment. Acting right at this moment is the only true morality. We can arguing right and wrong as intangible concepts, but those abstractions are always detached from the real situation in forepart of us now, and so they are partial and can never be a complete guide to our action in the present this notion would thus infer, in relation to the question I am researching, that past actions are not real existence, along with the future, then if the past is not real, how can it impact on tomorrow? It therefore follows that the only place where conduct can be right or wrong is here and now. So Buddhism emphasises that right and wrong are concerned with the present moment, here and now. Acting morally means acting right at this very moment. Acting right at this moment is the only true morality.It can be discussed right and wrong as abstract concepts, but those abstr actions are always detached from the real situation in front of a Buddhist now, and so they are partial and can never be a complete guide to our action in the present. This therefore would conclude that if right and wrong actions are only connected with today, and not the past nor future No actions of yesterday impede on tomorrow. However this could be seen as a slight contradiction Buddhism gives guidelines as to what good conduct is in the form of the Precepts these are not meant to be rigid and a confused rule will not result in committing sin, like the Christian Ten CommandmentsHowever they are guidelines as to what right conduct is, but in actual situations conduct is decided by the state of the body/mind in the moment of acting, not by the precepts alone therefore if one is broken, Buddhism urges a buddhist to regain the balanced state and act in the present rather than be punished for past bad conduct, which has passed and can never be changed therefore if Buddhism state s to live for today as the future and past are not real, yet the past bad conduct cant be changed therefore has left a mark in Buddhists life, how can past bad conduct even be conceived or considered to never be allowed to change if the past does not exist?To illustrate how a Buddhist might approach some of the ethical problems of today, you can look at the example of abortion. The early scriptures of Buddhism (The Pali Canon) are clear in seeing human life as starting with conception when there is the union of the m new(prenominal) and father, and it is the mothers season, and the being to be reborn is present, by dint of the union of these common chord things the conception of an embryo in a womb takes place. The word being, however, should not be thought of as a spirit or soul but consciousness being operated on by the force of (karma) that determines where the rebirth will be (according to forward deeds).When looking at such issue, we can see how it is an obvious moral proble m as it has not been discussed at length in Buddhist literature however there are references in the Pali canon that indicate the use was regarded as wrong. Buddhist disapproval of abortion is related to the belief that in rebirth and teachings on embryology. It is widely held that conception mark the moment of rebirth, and that any intentional termination of pregnancy after that time constitutes a breach of the first of the Five Precepts (panca- sila), not to kill or victimize living creatures, this could also be related the brain of euthanasia in Buddhism. This notion is an avowed view of most Buddhists however this position is not reflected in the abortion statistics in Buddhist countries In more conservative countries such as South Asia, abortion is oecumenically illegal, unless there is a threat to the mothers life, however illegal abortions are common with 300,000 per annum in Thailand, and in various east Asian countries abortions are even more numerous, such as one one million million per annum or greater is sometimes cited for countries such as Japan and South Korea.The fourth Noble Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path, sets out the main features of the Buddhist way of life addressing the nature of past behaviour affecting the future. The Buddha offered this path as the philia way, a way of life that does not fall into extreme views or extremes of behaviour but encourages balance and controlled moderation. Buddhist ethics are not based on the pursuit of sensual or other pleasures, and they also dont encourage extremes of deprivation, poverty or self-sacrifice.The various moral guidelines should be taken responsibly but with a light touch Ethical conduct (sila) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddhas teaching is based (Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, capital of the United Kingdom Gordon Fraser, 1928). In relation to what is good or bad in Buddhism, the main principle is linke d to intention and the determining factor is whether the act is out of selfish desire and craving, out of anger or hatred, or out of mindlessness and ignorance. Any actions that are motivated that way will result in caused suffering to us and to others. However, if the act is motivated by love and compassion they will bring well-being and happiness An action characterised by this moral quality (kusala-kamma) is bound to result (eventually) in happiness and a favourable issuance. Actions characterised by its opposite (akusala-kamma) lead to sorrow. This would thus infer that if actions result in happiness or sorrow, all actions of the past affect tomorrow.In Buddhism, ethical behaviour is ultimately strung-out on the mind and not on the body. On the basis of the Buddhas advice, Buddhism has developed into many various types of ethical guidance that Buddhists do their best to follow. The ethical disciplines of Buddhism can be divided into the guidelines for lay large number, and t he guidelines for monastics. Within Theravada Buddhism, ethical action must always be motivated by ahimsa, the handleing not to cause harm, and for Theravada monks, the main ethical guidelines are the 227 precepts of a monk. In Mahayana, ethical action must always be motivated by the bodhichitta, the wish to attain sagacity for the benefit of others, in contrast to lay ethics where there is no need to attain enlightenment as there is no time to achieve such state. Ethical behaviour on the bodhisattva path consists of the six paramitas or transcendental actions.When one becomes a Buddhist one begins by taking the Three Refuges, refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. The main commitment is to refrain from harming others and to adopt the approach of non violence (ahimsa). Non violence is a prevalent principle of Buddhist ethics as stated in the Dhammapada 5 In this world hate never yet dispelled hate. Only love dispels hate (Dominique Side, Buddhism, Oxfordshire Phillip Allan, 20 05, p151). Lay people can also take one or several of the Five Precepts, which are five basic vows that strengthen the Buddhist way of life I undertake to refrain from, 1) killing, 2) taking what is not freely given, 3) misusing sexuality, 4) harmful speech, and 5) taking intoxicants. As well as giving guidelines on what not to do, Buddhism encourages positive actions.In the Buddhas advice to a young man called Sigala, recorded in the Pali Canon, the Buddha explained the positive approach can be applied in daily life within the mannikin of the Six Relationships 1) Take care of your family 2) Take care of your marriage 3) Keep good company 4) Develop good relationships surrounded by teachers and students 5) Develop good relationships between employers and employees, and 6) Develop a supportive and harmonious relationship with the monastic Sangha. The importance of love and compassion is also outlined in 118 of the Dhammapada, Set your heart on doing good. Do it over and over again and you will be filled with joy (ibid, p153). This statement could be interpreted as if you continuously do good the outcome tomorrow will leave you filled with joy, therefore suggesting the idea of free will in Buddhism.In the Noble Eightfold Path, ethical conduct includes lead factors which overlap with the Five Precepts and Six Relationships 1) Right Action, 2) Right Speech, and 3) Right Livelihood. Lay morality rests on the principle that lay people aim to minimise their bad actions and maximise their good so they have a better rebirth.Human actions (karma) in the Buddhist framework were to be determined based on both the intent or motive (chetanaa) and the consequences (vipaaka) of the action. In the Dharmaniyama (moral duty code), theories of causality in Buddhism were challenged in the view that human destiny was unaffected by the ethics or morality of human actions. It countered the doctrine of amoral causation (akriyavaada) whose supporters argued that there was no merit i n doing good and no demerit for doing evil.In Buddhist teachings, idiosyncratic karma is created by situations and moral predicaments, thus the outcome of a Buddhists future will be a result of yesterdays actions. Every action a Buddhist performs can leave an imprint and their karmic potential will allow for its own effect. Positive or virtuous actions give way to future happiness, and negative, non virtuous actions will result in future suffering. This connection between actions and their effects is known as the law of karma this law is the foundations to Buddhist morality (sila). In the Buddhas teachings, Sila was spoken of vital importance as it allows for higher attainment of wisdom (panna) and concentration (Samadhi) this was mentioned in his Visuddhimagga A wise man, after establishing well in virtue, develops consciousness and understanding (http//web.ukonline.co.uk/buddhism/panadpa8.htm).The law of karma is seen as a natural law just like fleshly laws like gravity. Karma is unlike morality in other religions as it is not operated by immortal or any other supreme being because Buddhism does not require supernatural intervention. The idea that karma works without any outside intervention means that the result of karma is not a reward, nor is it a punishment because they believe that this infers dependence upon a supreme power in judgement, whereas in Buddhism there is nobody to judge us, we determine our future by the way we act and the way we think, this idea is explicit clearly in the first verse of the Dhammapada, What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts demonstrate our life of tomorrow our life is the creation of our mind. If a man speaks or acts with an impure mind, suffering follows him as the wheel of the cart follows the beast that draws the cart (Dominique Side, Buddhism, Oxfordshire Phillip Allan, 2005, p130). This cite is an excellent example for evidence in supporting the question being asked in this essay, as it addresses the idea that not only our actions, but also our thoughts fortify our future and that impurities of the mind cause future suffering.A Common misinterpretation of karma is that it is a law of fate however the idea of fate implies determinism, which would allow for no change or exemption, thus an idea seen in many theistic religions such as the notion that God determines life. This idea of determinism could be firstly viewed as a completely contrasting idea to that in Buddhism. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that everything is determined causally by an unbroken chain of prior events. However determinism has been uttered as the doctrine of hooklike origination in Buddhism and is an important factor in the evidence regarding my question. The doctrine of dependent origination is fundamental in connecting moral responsibility and causation, especially the ontological status of all matter. The doctrine teaches that all phenomena occur from depend ence on causes and circumstances and lack intrinsic nature.The doctrine is expressed in its simplest form in phrase idam sati ayam bhavati, which means when this exists, that arises, which logically can be expressed as, when condition A arises, condition B arises, thus its nose candy would be that when A doesnt exist, B wont. It is indicated in early sources that the Buddha became fully enlightened under the Bodhi tree when he fully realised the profound truth of Dependent Origination, thus that all matter is conditioned and arise and cease in a determinate chain of events. because in relation to moral responsibility, it could be said that nothing happens out of its own volition, so there are no forces or metaphysical realties, such as a god or soul to act as a determiner, so it could be argued that moral responsibility is ones own, yet with a chain of causation, and no self, it could also be said one cannot be responsible if one doesnt exist.A way of classifying Buddhist ethics i n Western terms is by relating it to docile determinism. Soft determinism is a midpoint between the hard determinism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Hume and John Stuart Mill, where the assertion of cause and effect is universal, therefore moral freedom is not possible and libertarians who believe that uncaused, unconditional choices can be made and that free will exists, as Immanuel Kant stated free will was essential for morality, In morals, the proper and inestimable charge of an absolutely good will consists precisely in the freedom of the principle of action (Robert A Bowie, Ethical Studies, Nelson Thornes, 2001, p59).There is an important relationship between freedom and moral responsibility it has been commonly held that we should be morally responsible for actions that we freely perform. If we can only blame or praise people for actions they freely and wittingly undertake, then it is vital that we have the freedom to act, morality depends on freedom. Immanuel Kant wrote ou ght implies can, therefore we cant blame someone for something they cannot do If people are not free, the survey of making moral decisions in denied, thus if an external influence causes human actions, people cannot be morally responsible.Hard determinists believe that we are not free and cannot be held morally responsible for our actions (Omar Khayyam R A Bowie, Ethical Studies, p91). This idea has some ethical similarity to the traditional Judeo-Christian idea of Predestination, it can be summarised as all our choices, decisions, intentions, other mental events, and all our actions are no more than effects of other equally necessitated events (Honedrich, ibid, p91). Hard determinism insists that all actions have a prior cause. However, this idea has a number of profound consequences it puts doubt in our hopes for the future and how we consider the morality of others. If we praise a person for their good action, we are mistaken as it is not their action, it has been pre-determine d. Additionally, if our actions are determined humans cannot deliberate rationally, we are, to an extent, illusive to the fact we cant decide for ourselves what we wish to do.Buddhism accepts the idea of determinism but rejects the idea of an agent and thus the idea that freedom is free will belonging to an agent. The Buddha said There is free action, there is retribution, but I see no agent that passes out from one set of momentary elements into another one, except the connection of those elements.Buddhism believes in neither absolute free will nor determinism, it preaches a middle doctrine, called pratitya-samutpada in Sanskrit, which is often translated as inter-dependent arising When this exists, that exists From the arising of this, that arises When this does not exist, that does not exist From the cessation of this, that ceases (Majjhima Nikaya, 1.262-64, D. Side, Buddhism, 2005, p97). It is part of the theory of karma. In Buddhism it is taught that the notion of complete free dom of choice is unwise, because it denies the reality of physical needs and circumstances. Similarly incorrect is the idea that we have no choice in life or that our lives are pre-determined. To deny freedom would be to undermine the efforts of Buddhists to make moral progress through our capacity to freely choose compassionate action. Pubbekatahetuvada, the belief that all happiness and suffering arise from previous actions, is considered an incorrect view according to Buddhist doctrines.Libertarianism however, rejects the idea of determinism. If we wish to retain the idea of moral responsibility and accept that a person can, when confronted with the choice between right and wrong, act as a free agent, one must accept the idea of libertarianism. Libertarians do not reject the idea of determinism completely, in general they agree that the inanimate world is mechanistic that all events are mechanically caused and therefore predictable and that all the mechanical chains of cause an d effect may extend to the animate world. They deny the principle of universal causation applying to human action and that accordingly human behaviour is predictable. Libertarians distinguish between a persons organize character or personality and his or her moral self.David Hume described liberty in his An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding By liberty, then, we can only mean a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will that is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may if we choose to move, we also may (R A Bowie, Ethical Studies, 2001, p93). They believe we are not compelled to act morally by forces outside our moral consciousness. Moral actions are not chance or hit-or-miss events, but result from the values and character of the moral agent. An important argument for libertarianism is the human sense of decision making. While we have a sense of freedom, a sense of deliberating over our options, determinists maintain this is an illusion of freedo m. Libertarianism does not explain human action, yet many would argue surely action needs a cause? Libertarianism attributes our moral judgement to an objective source, unmoved by environmental or upbringing, but this is questionable.Buddhists therefore do not agree with hard determinism in that Buddhists do not believe in an external cause, like libertarians, however they do not completely agree with the libertarian notion of complete free will. To resolve the debate on relating Buddhism to either Determinism or Libertarianism and thus create a type of determinism to which Buddhist causality can relate to, A.J. Ayer advocates a type of soft determinism which accepts that everything has a cause but which defines particular actions as free volitions. An action can be a free volition provided that 1) If you had had the volition not to do the action you would not have done it and 2) Nobody compelled you to do it. for Ayer we have responsibility for our volitional actions. In order to e xplain the difference between phenomena that are caused and free volitions, some soft determinists distinguish between the internal and external causes of an action, for example between its contingent and mental causes.It can be argued that while the external causes are determined, the psychological causes may not be the Buddhist view is similar in that it states that physical objects and circumstances are always determined through causes and conditions. Physiological, physical and psychological causes are determined by mental decisions. Therefore a midway between the two contrasting theories is soft determinism and can most satisfactorily relate to Buddhist ethical principles. It would seem that we must choose between the belief in universal causation and, on the other hand, the belief in the existence of free will, it being accepted by both determinists and libertarians that these two beliefs are incompatible. The incongruity of the two however is rejected by soft determinists who say that human freedom and moral responsibility, is incomprehensible without determinism.Soft determinists state the assumption that determinism is inconsistent with free will is the result of considerable confusion about what is meant by free. It is true that freedom as incompatible with fatalism, the view that human beings are powerless to change the cause of events, but it is not conflicting with determinism. Therefore soft determinists have labelled the two ideas when the cause of action is internal, therefore out of your own volition, you acted voluntarily and of your own free will but when the cause is external, for example contrary to your wishes or desires, you acted involuntarily and under compulsion. According to the soft determinist, this distinction between internal and external causes explains why freedom and moral responsibility is not only compatible with determinism but actually requires it.Determinism is correct here in that for these actions to be uncaused would m ean they would be completely unpredictable, impulsive and therefore irresponsible. Therefore when it is said a person acted freely it is not meant as his or her action was uncaused but rather they were not compelled to do it, that they were under no kind of external pressure, they themselves chose to act this way.We can relate the soft determinist notion of labelling the distinction between action and cause to Buddhist morality in actual situations a Buddhists conduct is decided by the state of their body/mind in the moment of acting, not by the Precepts alone. They try honestly to follow the Precepts, but if they break one of the Precepts, Buddhism urges them to recover and regain the balanced state and act right in the present, rather than to forfeit for past bad conduct, which has passed and can never be changed as it does not exist anymore. Buddhism says that whether or not one can act morally or right in this moment does not depend on the concept or belief of what it right and what is wrong, but on the state of our body and mind at this present moment.The enlightenment (Bodhi) of the Buddha was both his liberation from suffering (dukka) and his insight into the nature of the universe the Buddha was thus awakened to the truth of dependent origination. This is the idea that any phenomena only exists because of the existence of other phenomena in a complex web (Indras net) of cause and effect covering past, present and future.Everything is dependent on everything else A human beings existence is dependent on the condition of everything else in the world (and universe) at that moment in time but equally the condition of everything in the world in that moment is dependent in an equally significant way on the character and condition of that human being. Indras Net is used in Buddhism as a metaphor for illustrating the concepts of dresser of interconnectedness of all things. Everything in the universe is interconnected through this web of cause and effect thus all are mutually beneficial. Therefore because all these things are transient (annicca) and conditioned it can be held that they do not exist, thus if they do not exist, can they be held morally responsible for their actions?The Heart Sutra disagrees with the idea of dependent origination and says that there is no such law as karma or cause and effect. This still however relates to the idea of emptiness (sunyata) as state by Nagarjuna that dependent origination and emptiness are two sides of the same coin. For Nagarjuna, emptiness should not be interpreted ontologically, but rather in the way of the parable of the raft The Buddhist teaching (especially shunyata), is like the raft one constructs for the crossing of a river. Once the river is crossed, the purpose of the raft has been served. Therefore the raft is not needed anymore.The same is true of emptiness it should not be held on to one who does hold on to it will have trouble functioning in life. Nagarjuna wrote extensively, and his teachings resulted in the formation of an Indian school called Madhyamika or the Middle Way School. Sunyata refers to the fact that no thing, including human existence, has ultimate substantiality, which in turn means that no thing is permanent and no thing is totally independent of everything else. In other words, everything in this world is interconnected and in constant flux. An appreciation of this idea of emptiness thus saves us from the suffering caused by our egos, our attachments, and our resistance to change and loss.Therefore all phenomena are dependent originations, which means that they dont exist, thus if they dont exist, they are blank which would thus mean that ethics itself is empty, thus it would be impossible to ever act ethically as there would not be such notion in existence. If everything is dependent causally, then it would seem impossible to act ethically however a Buddhist would argue that the whole universe isnt dependent causally, there is only on e determining factor, Karma. Thus one of the possible arguments against karmic determinism is that karma is only one influencing factor and the universe has a random aspect to it, which could account for a degree of freedom.Buddhist teachings explain how misleading states of mind keep you trapped in a recurring pattern of dissatisfaction by teaching about interdependent origination, the idea that things happen for a reason. Dependent Origination suggests that every event has a cause. For a Buddhist, life experiences, both good and bad, arent random, meaningless events, however, nor are they rewards, or punishments, as rewards and punishments require a controlling outside force sat in judgment such as a god, as there is no god in Buddhism blaming God or fate doesnt work, experiences come from a result of a series of causes and effects that begin in a buddhists mind. In teachings known as the Twelve links of dependent arising, Buddha described the mechanism that drives you from realm to realm within a cyclic existence and keeps you trapped in suffering and dissatisfaction in these links Buddhas purpose for teaching these links, beginning with ignorance and ending with a corpse, was to make us aware of the way our ignorantly motivated actions inevitably lead to recurring suffering, this suffering motivates a Buddhist to seek a way out, thus nirvana.The Buddha taught that the way to achieve this freedom is by engaging in what he called the Three Trainings which form the foundations to which the entire structure of Buddhist practice rests. These three trainings were Moral Discipline, the strength Concentration, the sharp aim And Wisdom, the tool. If a Buddhist practices the three trainings in combination with one another, the Buddha stated that cyclic existence would end and one would feel the inexpressible peace of liberation. With moral self-discipline as a base, concentration allowing for inherent focus, wisdom can break through ignorance and help you free your self from the cycle of recurring misery. In relation to the asking if today is a result of yesterday, it would suggest it is, however a Buddhist can change tomorrows outcome by having moral self discipline, concentration and wisdom.If a Buddhist wants justification from suffering and from the danger of lower rebirth, they must try and not commit any more negative karma, however, this is also a problem in Buddhism as karma is generally negative, thus how can one create any more negativity if all karma is negative, thus everything really is Dukkha, therefore, in conclusion, it is apt to say that today is the result of yesterdays actions. However, a Buddhist can purify negative karma that has already been committed. There are ten principle non-virtuous actions that should be avoided Three actions of the body, four of speech, and three of the mind. The three non virtuous bodily actions are killing, stealing and sexual misconduct the four non virtuous verbal actions are lying, divisive speech, hurtful speech and dead chatter and the three non virtuous mental actions are covetousness, malice and holding wrong views.The best way for a buddhist to avoid negative actions is to practice consideration for others. All kind of non virtuous actions have three kinds of effects, the ripened effect, the effect similar to the cause and the environmental effect. The ripened effect of a negative effect is a rebirth in one of the three lower realms. A Buddhists previous actions will always have a definite outcome on tomorrow, however there are issues such as causality and free will which when taken into consideration make it hard to substantiate whether a Buddhist can be praised or blamed for such actions.The idea of Sunyata means that if everything in existence is empty, morality itself is empty which would mean acting ethically would be impossible, therefore actions are empty so the law of Karma is flawed, this is a contradiction in Buddhist philosophy as it would mean that th ere can be no actions of yesterday impacting upon the present, therefore I could reach a conclusion disagreeing with the statement Today is a result of yesterday, tomorrow is a result of today as it is impossible to be a result if there are no actions in existence allowing for a future However, with many ideas in Buddhist philosophy contradicting each other it is hard to conclude on this question as there are too many conflictions between Karma being the universal law of cause and effect and dependent origination, as well as the idea that it is too simplistic a notion for today to be a result of yesterday as there are complicated ideas related to Buddhist ethics.BibliographyDamien Keown, Oxford Dictionary of Buddhism Oxford University Press, 2003.Dominique Side, Buddhism, Oxfordshire Phillip Allan, 2005.Geshe Kelshang Gyato, Introduction to Buddhism Cumbria Thorpe Publications, 1992.Michael Palmer, Moral Problems The Lutterworth Press, 1991.Robert A Bowie, Ethical Studies Nelson Tho rnes, 2001.Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught London Gordon Fraser, 1926.www.buddhanet.co.ukwww.wikipedia.orgwww.nibbana.com

Managerial Research In Decision Making Processes

managerial seek In Decision Making Processesmanagerial research is a broad topic that covers a range of aspects, whether these are strategic, tactical or technical. People often confuse managerial research with other research forms, but in fact managerial research differs to a great extent from social and other research types. Managerial research is antithetic in such a way because it explores somewhat the core elements that are bringed to apply prosper the business instead of searching such information that are not productive or leave oriented. The managerial research is important because managers at solely stages require timely and exact information for decisiveness making. Whatever the conclusiveness making stage is, whether it is of tactical, running(a) or strategic level, the accurate information are required to for better ending making. At managerial level gathering of information is done with a sound and scientific research process. Each year organizations spend en ormous amounts of money for research and development in order to maintain their agonistical edge. Accurate information obtained through research principal sums to enormous benefits. In short, Managerial research is practical and finds its application in many places to identify the various characteristics and primaeval factors responsible for the success of the firm and the products it develops. This research paper shows detailed and at length description of managerial research to describe that this type of research is different from other research methods.Definition of ResearchResearch is the subroutine of carefully studying and evaluating the situational elements surrounding an issue in order to search for solutions to it. A opinionated thorough inquiry or inspection to find new information or correlations and to expand/verify current knowledge for some particular purpose. wherefore We Do Research?Exploration Discovering problems of concern, growing understanding of the issueD escription Finding out, defining what is, what is the condition? Where are we now?Explanation Explaining how or why things are as they are (and utilizing this to predict), Answering questions, resolving issues, testing hypotheses, assessment research evaluation of strategies, policies, plans and practicesDifference between Managerial Research Other ResearchArtistic ResearchOne of the attributes of Artistic Research is that it must take subjectivity as opposite to the classical scientific techniques. As such, it is parallel to the social sciences in utilizing quantitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysisHistorical MethodThe historical technique comprises the methods and strategies by which historians utilize historical sources and other proof to research and then to write history. There are different history rules generally utilized by historians in their work, under the headings of immaterial criticism, internal criticism, and syn thesis. This contains higher criticism and textual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and examiners, the subsequent concepts are generally part of roughly formal historical studyManagerial ResearchManagerial research is practical and finds its application in several places to fleck the different characteristics and major factors accountable for the success of the company and the untroubleds it develops. It usually looks into future trend rather that wasting time in some art or thinking in past. Usually, firms would equivalent to know the level of consumer satisfaction of the companys product and here managerial research will be laborsaving. Managerial research is also religious serviceful for doing a pilot study to introduce a new product and the different applications and guidelines of managerial research in business decision making. The firms take decision even before introducing new products through managerial research. Managerial research supp orts them to recognize that whether the product will be viable in firms interest or not. For this purpose different techniques have been utilizing to gather relevant data for better decision making through various paradigms e.g. warring intelligence, study analysis, financial analysis, Ansoff situation analysis, etc.Managerial research can be utilized to gather data approximately securities industrys, rivals, and consumers that the other two techniques cannot do so. For instance, managerial research can help identify the most favorable business location and the size of marketplaces. It can also be utilized to monitor competitive actions. Consumer research decides guest loyalty, client satisfaction, and client preferences.In this way a managers job is different and difficult. Managers need some expertise to perform the responsibilities and activities related with world a manager. What kind of expertise does a manager require? Research by Robert L. Katz discovered that managers required three basic expertises. These are technical, human and abstract expertise. Technical skills contain information of and excellence in a certain specialized domain, for example engineering, computers, financial and managerial accounting, or production. These expertises are more material at lower levels of administration since these supervisors are coping directly with workers doing the companys work. Human skills engage the capability to work well with other individuals both(prenominal) separately and in a group. Because managers cope directly with individuals, this skill is essential Managers with good human skills are equal to(p) to get the best out of their individuals. They recognize how to interact, stimulate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and confidence. These expertises are equally significant at all levels of administration. Eventually conceptual skills are the skills managers must have to consider and conceptualize about abstract and difficult situations. Utilizing these skills managers must be capable to see the company as an entity, understand the correlation among different subunits, and visualize how the company fits into its wider unbendingting.Need of Managerial ResearchProducers need managerial research because they need to convince people to expand their business span through purchasing their products. In order to magnetise target audience they introduce new Managerial research with new trends and technologies, these trends persuade people to buy the product which actually increases the sales of company and reduces embody per unit. On the other side economic scale of company boost up and give a major rise to profit of company. As things chance very rapid in the technology world and if companies want to stay competitive they need to move up with the latest Managerial research. It is chiefly real for the managerial research. There exist many ways of Managerial research so a company need to keep abreast of the new Managerial resear ch in business if a company wants to be thrived. As compare to the physical markets there exist lessen barriers in internet managerial research. The reason is the reduction of overhead and it shows that there are so many competitors in the business field. The main phenomenon to be thrived in t he market by following managerial research in order to assure that the business will be conspicuous. By following the latest trend of managerial research the company will put themselves on the cutting edge. A lot of the managerial research is seemed nice and once it is implemented they serve to make the business stand out. It helps business users and producers to expand their business. If firm is following all managerial research standards then it will be able to diversified ad so it will be able to compete in market. More attractive and impressive advertisement will not only increase sales but also will help in capturing market.Managerial Research Role in Decision MakingAt the beginning, it may be utter that business research or for that matter any research does not provide an exact answer to any issue but only help in making a good choice. Research is one of the four elements for making suitable and enduring decisions leading to interests of the business and ultimately its owners.A good place to begin is with some standard descriptions of decision making. Decision making is the research of recognizing and selecting options based on the values and priorities of the decision taker. Making a decision implies that there are substitute options to be measured, and in such a situation we want not only to recognize as several of these substitutes as feasible but to select the one that (1) has the utmost probability of achievement or success and (2) best fits with our objectives, desires, way of life, values, and so on. Decision making is the procedure of sufficiently decreasing insecurity and uncertainty about substitutes to permit a reasonable selection to be made from amon g them. This description stresses the information-collecting process of decision making. It should be eminent here that doubt is decreased rather than removed. Very few choices are made with exact certainty because total understanding about all the substitutes is seldom potential. Thus, every decision engages a certain amount of threat. If there is no doubt, you do not have a choice you have an algorithma set of steps or a recipe that is pursued to bring about a set result.Managerial research for marketing is use for evaluating process, evaluating actual customer need, and for complete decision making. Decision making is quite difficult process and put the decision taker at a ground where he starts comparing hid decision options. The first problem he face is he wont be able to finalize the actual demand of result fir the decision has been taken. Managerial research helps identifying policy alternatives. Much work on knowledge exchange has concentrated on helping observers present th eir work into the decision-making procedure. Equally essential is the need for decision-making companies to be able of utilizing research in their decision-making. This ability engages a company having the capability to find the research proof it requires, judge its dependability, quality, significance, and applicability, adapt it into a affirmable format, and implement it.Problem solving and decision-making are important managerial expertise for business and life. Issue-resolving often engages decision-making and that is particularly essential for administration and management. There are procedures and methods to call down decision-making and the quality of choices. Decision-making is more ordinary to certain traits, so these individuals should concentrate more on enhancing the quality of their choices. Individuals that are less normal decision-makers are often capable to make quality evaluations, but then require being more strong-minded in acting upon the evaluations made. Issu e-resolving and decision-making are intimately connected, and each needs creative thinking in recognizing and developing choices, for which the brainstorming method is specifically helpful. SWOT analysis helps evaluate the power of a firm, a business proposal or report PEST analysis helps to evaluate the possible and appropriateness of a market. Good decision-making needs a mixture of expertise creative progress and identification of choices, lucidness of judgment, determination of decision, and undefeated implementation. For group issue-resolving and decision-making, or when a harmony is needed, workshops support, within which you can include these tools and procedures as suitable. Here are some helpful techniques for successful decision-making and issue-resolving First a simple step-by-step procedure for successful decision-making and issue-resolving.ConclusionManagerial research is the process that facilitates an organization to focus its target audience on the greatest opport unities for increasing the sales and achieve a stay over Managerial research competition. Mainly it cater its key concept that to make a sustainable competitive advantage. Managerial research is introduced by focusing on organization sales and cost per unit. It helps company to figure out the consumption of resources and energies that lead towards the increasing in sale and dominate in the competitive world of managerial research.

Additive Manufacturing; Stereolithography in Dentistry

elongate Manufacturing Stereolithography in DentistryIntroductionDigital revolution beca expenditure of computers has make the previously manual tasks much easier, faster and more reli qualified at a reduced cost. Such modifications are always welcomed in dentistry, especially from materials and manufacturing perspective. The digital revolution in the form of dental CADCAM took place many years ago, since than many modified systems have appeared on the market with great rapidity.It is evaluate that another digital dental revolution will take over dentistry in the form of layered fabrication techniques, once they are able to crap high quality dental prostheses. This situation has also posed great challenge for the material scientists in the form of materials that are suitable for enormous term use in dentistry and oral examination environment. This hatful potentially take dental materials research in a totally different direction.Additive manufacturingDentistry is the intimatel y suited field for additive manufacturing, as it is associated with rapid production of customized units made to fit the patient with high degree of precision and accuracy. In principle it make believes a series of cross-sectional slices from a 3D computer file which are then printed one on top of the other to create the 3D object without any material being wasted. Additive manufacturing technologies includes many and Stereolithography (SLA) is one of them.Stereolithography (SLA)Stereolithography (SLA) is the most widely used rapid prototyping technology. The term Stereolithography was first introduced in 1986 by Charles W. Hull, who defined it as a method for making solid objects by successively printing thin layers of an ultraviolet curable material, one on top of the other.Materials and Required timeA number of materials that the industry uses have increased greatly and modern machines can utilize a broad rove of photo curable polymers. Timing depends on the size and number of objects being created, the laser cogency take a minute or two for from each one layer (a typical run 6 to 12 h). One can now even print 50 to 80 dental crown units in 56 minutes with high quality mode.Applications in dentistryDental applications are very suitable for processing by means of SLA due to their convoluted geometries, low volume and strong individualization. Most common are models fabricated from intraoral or impression scans. However, popularity is gaining for orthodontics and removable prosthodontics.1. Production of anatomical models SLA models are best-loved because of higher strength, higher temperature resistance, lower moisture absorption, and lower shrinkage. They can be sterilized for surgical use, and literature has shown superior accuracy (Barker et al., 1994, Choi et al., 2002, Cunningham et al., 2005). Table-1 summarizes basic characteristics of the three most common types of 3-D models used in the United States. SLA clinical models are used as an aid to d iagnosis, preoperative planning and implant design and manufacturing. Surgeons use models to help plan surgeries but prosthetists and technologists also use models as an aid to the design and manufacturing of custom-fitting implants. These models are particularly very useful for restorative rehabilitation of oral cancer patients. Medical models are frequently used to help in the construction of Cranioplasty plates. The models are effective tools to facilitate patient education and as a teaching aid for students and junior colleagues.2. Manufacture of crowns and bridges, resin models Its use is gradually being extended to include the manufacture of temporary crowns and bridges and resin working(a) models for loss wax casting.3. Production of removable partial denture frameworks The removable partial denture frameworks is made using rapid prototyping, SLA technique. It was developed by 3D Systems of Valencia, CA, USA in 1986.4. Production of individually-customized digital aligner mo dels for orthodontic use Whole trays of individually-customized aligner models which serve as extremely accurate base-mold tools upon which the clear aligners are then thermoformed, can be produced by this additive technique.5. Manufacturing of scaffolds for bioengineering and nerve guide conduits Scaffolds for bioengineering and nerve guide conduits for peripheral nerve regeneration are the newer applications of a corresponding process i.e. microstereolithography ( SLA).Future advancementsWith the improvements in the speed, reliability, and accuracy of the hardware, additive manufacturing will seriously compete with traditional manufacturing in creating end-use products. Many possible biomedical engineering applications might be available in the coming years.ConclusionIt will still be many years before the machines will be able to produce work of a quality that can be achieved by the best dental technologists in the world. For the dental materials scientist these technologies will throw up a unanimous new way of materials processing and with it the opportunity to use a whole new range of materials.Table-1 Basic characteristics of 3 D models (Choi et al., 2002)References and further readingBarker, T.M, Earwaker, W.J.S, lisle D.A. (1994) Accuracy of stereolithographic models for human anatomy.Australas Radiol,38(106).Berman, B. (2012) 3-D printing The new industrial revolution.Business horizons,55(2), 155-162.Cassetta, M., Giansanti, M., Di Mambro, A., Stefanelli, L. V. (2013) Accuracy of Positioning of Implants Inserted Using a Mucosa-Supported Stereolithographic Surgical Guide in the Edentulous upper jaw and Mandible.The International journal of oral maxillofacial implants,29(5), 1071-1078.Choi, J.Y., Choi, J.H., Kim N.K. (2002) Analysis of errors in medical rapid prototyping models.Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 31(23). doi 10.1054/ijom.2000.0135.Cunningham, L., Madsen, M., Peterson, G. (2005) Stereolithographic modeling technology applied to tumor resect ion.J Oral Maxillofac Surg, 63, 873878.Gauvin, R., Chen, Y. C., Lee, J. W., Soman, P., Zorlutuna, P., Nichol, J. W., Khademhosseini, A. (2012) Microfabrication of complex porous tissue engineering scaffolds using 3D projection stereolithography.Biomaterials, 33(15), 3824-3834.Mehra, P., Miner, J., DInnocenzo, R., Nadershah, M. (2011) Use of 3-D stereolithographic models in oral and maxillofacial surgery.Journal of maxillofacial and oral surgery,10(1), 6-13.Melchels, F. P., Feijen, J., Grijpma, D. W. (2010) A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering.Biomaterials, 31(24), 6121-6130.Morris, L., Sokoya, M., Cunningham, L., Gal, T. J. (2013) Utility of stereolithographic models in osteocutaneous free flap reconstruction of the head and neck.Craniomaxillofacial trauma reconstruction,6(2), 87.Patel, M., Al-Momani, Z., Hodson, N., Nixon, P., Mitchell, D. (2013) Computerized tomography, stereolithography and dental implants in the rehabilitation of oral can cer patients.Dental update,40(7), 564-6.Tasaki, S., Kirihara, S., Soumura, T. (2011, November) Fabrication of Ceramic Dental Crowns by using Stereolithography and Powder Sintering Process. In Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings (Vol. 32(8), 141-146). American Ceramic Society, Inc., 735 Ceramic Place Westerville OH 43081 United States.Van Noort, R. (2012) The future of dental devices is digital.Dental Materials, 28(1), 3-12.

The Real Causes Of Nationalism And Imperialism History Essay

The Real Causes Of Nationalism And Imperialism History EssayGenerally, state of war is the payoff of a national entity wishing to improve the standard of living for its people. A major second cause is when a nation perceives a possible lessening in a current standard of living and fights to protect what it at ready has. state of war is a behavior pattern exhibited by many archpriest species including human most basically and other species in the other hand like ant species. The primary feature of this behavior is a certain kingdom of organized violent conflict that is engaged in between twain or much separate social entities such conflict is always an endeavour at altering either the psychological hierarchy or the material hierarchy of domination or equality between two or more groups. In all causes at least one participant (group) in the conflict perceives the need to dominate the other participant. The perceived need for domination a great deal arises from a belief that an essential ideology or resource is somehow either so incompatible or so scarce as to expose the fundamental experience of the one group experiencing the need to dominate the other group. Leaders will sometimes enter into a war under the protestation that their actions are primarily defensive, however when objectively their actions may more closely resemble a form of unprovoked, unwarranted or disproportionate aggression. ball War I was the result of attracters aggression towards other countries which was supported by the rising nationalism of the European Nations. Economic and imperial competism and fear of war prompted host alliances and an arms race which will further escalate the tension contri exactlying to the outbreak of warWhat really causes war are-NationalismImperialism von Bismarck and adhesionCollapse of Bismarck an AllianceArms RaceCrisis in AfricaNationalismAt the settlement of the Vienna congress in 1815, the principle of nationalism was snub in failure of keepin g the peace. Germany and Italy were left as divided states, but strong nationalist movements and revolutions led to the unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany too in 1871. some other result of the Franco Prussian war of 1870-71 was that France was left of tumid the nation seethed with suppressed revolutionary activity over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and Revanche was a major goal for the cut Nationalism posed a problem for Austria-Hungary and the Balkans area in Germany comprised of many conflicting national groups. The ardent pauslavism of Serbia and Russia willingness to support and contribute to its Slavic brother conflicted with Austria-Hungarys pan-Germanism.ImperialismThe gene which contributed to the increase in rivalry in Europe was imperialism, because of the competition between these countries Great Britain, Germany and France because they needed foreign markets subsequently the increase in manufacturing caused by the industrial revolution. These countries were competing for economic expansion in Africa, although Britain and France resolved their differences in Africa, several crises fore-shadowing the war involved the clash of Germany against Britain and France in North Africa.In the Middle East, the crumbling Ottoman conglomerate was alluring to Austria-Hungary, the Balkans and Russia.BISMARCK AND ALLIANCESWorld War I was caused in part by the two opposing alliances developed by Bismarckian diplomacy that was after the Franco-Prussian war, and in order to diplomatically isolate France, Bismarck formed the three Emperors league in 1871 an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia. When the French occupied Tunisia, Bismarck took vantage of the Italian indignation and resentment toward France and created the Triple Alliance between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary in 1882. In exchange for Italys agreement to stay neutral, no distinctive quality or characteristic or type if war broke out between Austria-Hungary and Russian. Austria-Hungary and Germany would protect Italy from France. Russia and Austria-Hungary grew suspicious of themselves over conflict in the Balkans in 1887, but Bismarck repaired the damage to these suspicious to his alliances with a reinsurance Treaty with Russia, allowing both the two powers to stay neutral if the other was at War.COLLAPSE OF BISMARCKIAN ALLIANCESBismarck was fired by Kaiser William II in 1890, the tradition dislike and dont like the idea of slaves kept Bismarcks successors from renewing the agreement with Russia. France took opportunity to get an ally-to place in a well-disposed association, as by treaty or to unite or connect and the Franco-Russian entente was formed in 1891. The Kruger Telegram William II sent to congratulate the leader of the Boers for defeating the British in 1890 and he gave the German soldiers instructions to behave like Huns in China during the Boxer Rebellion and particularly the large-scale navy he wasBuilding all contributed to British distrust of Germany. As a result of that, Britain and France overlooked all major impenalistic conflict between them and formed an Entente consecrate in 1904. Russia formed an Entente with Britain in 1907 after they reached an agreement with Britains ally Japan and William II had further alienated Russia by supporting Austrian ambitions in the Balkans. The Triple Entente, an informal coalition between Great Britain, France and Russia now countered the Triple Alliance. International tension was greatly increased by the division of Europe into two armed camps.ARMS RACEThe menace (something that threatens to cause evil, harm, injury or a threat) of the hostile division led to an arms race, another cause of World War I. Acknowledging that Germany was the leader in armed services organization and efficiency the great powers of Europe copied the universal conscription, large reserve and detailed planning of the Prussian system. organisational and Technological developments led to the for mation of general staffs with precise plans for mobilization and struggle that often could not be reversed once they were begun. The German Von Schlieffen plan to attack France before Russia in the event of the war with Russia was once such complicated plan that attracted and drew more countries into war than necessary. Armies and Navies were greatly expanded. The standing armies of France and Germany doubled the size of it between 1870 and 1914. Naval expansion was also extremely competitive, particularly between Germany and Great Britain. By 1889, the British had established the principle that in order to curb naval superiority in the event of war, they would have to have a navy two and a half times as large as the second-largest navy. This motivated the British to launch the Dreadnought, invented by Admiral Sir John Fisher in 1906.The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 had demonstrated how effective these battleships were. As Britain increased their output of battleships, Germany correspondingly stepped up their naval production including the Dreadnought. Although efforts for worldwide disarmament (the act of laying down arms especially the reduction or abolition of a nations military forces and armaments) were made at the Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907 international rivalry caused the arms race to continue to feed on itself.CRISIS IN AFRICAThe friction (the rubbing of one object or surface against another conflict, as between persons having dissimilar ideas or interest) of an armed and divided Europe escalated into several crises in Morocco and the Balkans which nearly ended in war. In 1905, Germany announced its support of independence for Morocco, the African colony which Britain had given France in 1904. The British defended the French and war was avoided by the international conference in Algeciras in 1906 which allowed France to make Morocco a French protectorate.BOSNIAN CRISIS OF 1908There was conflict incited by the Austria-Hugarian annexation o f the former Turkish province of Bosnia in 1908. The Greater Serbia threatened war on Austria-Hungary. Russia had pledged their support to Serbia, so they began to mobilize, which caused Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, to threaten war on Russia. The beginning of World War I was postponed when Russia backed down but relations between Austria-Hungary and Serbia were greatly strained.

King Lear’s Sins Pale in Comparison to those Committed Against Him Essa

male monarch Lears Sins Pale in Comparison to those Committed Against Him King Lear commits several acts that are nearly unforgivable. Not only does he shipping a trusted, loyal servant, he also banishes his throw daughter. Cordelia, unable and unwilling to submit herself to the ridiculous game of her father, is sent off to France with his curses. His subsequent action - the segmentation of the land between his 2 ungrateful daughters - is the final act, the final sin, and one that plunges the land into turmoil. However, his actions do not excuse the responses they bring from his kin and kinsmen. The sins against him - the actions of his two daughters and the wickedness of Edmund - are far greater than those he committed himself. While he may have started the series of events that eventually consumed the land in turmoil, it were those three who propagated the chaos. King Lear is definitely much more sinned against than sinning. That King Lear sinn ed, there can be no doubt. Nevertheless, a sin does not exclude the possibility that there was a sufficient cause (in his mind) for the action. Examine, for instance, King Lears decision to exile his own daughter, Cordelia. The King is of an advanced age. Though he will not, can not, admit it, senility is pass on upon him, clouding his brain and influencing his judgement. Combined with his pride, age, and subconscious fear of encroaching mortality, Lear has a great desire for flattery, and more importantly, to have the love of his children reaffirmed before him. After the two first daughters inflate his ego, Cordelia is left in the unenviable position of trying to surpass them. She too will not, can not, bring herself to do so. Thi... ...don him in his madness. Edmund, the chief(prenominal) force of evil in the play, not only comes near to destroying the country the Lear has worked so hard to maintain, he also gives the order for the death of the King and his youngest daughter. This, of course, leads directly to Lears own self-induced death. Therefore, while king Lears sins were horrible, and cannot be fully excused by his madness or his redemption, they still pale in comparison to those committed against him. While he wallowed in pettiness, they succumbed to greed, evil, and murder. Works Cited Kermode, Frank. King Lear. The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G.B.Evans. Boston Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974. 1249-54. Muir, Kenneth, ed. King Lear. London Methuen & Co, 1972 Partee, Morriss Henry. Edgar and the Ending of King Lear. Studia Neophilologica 63 (1991) 175-180.

Political Repression of the Black Panther Party Essay -- essays resear

Charles E. Jones documents the overwhelming causes that brought an end to the Black Panther Party. He notes that the rudimentary reason which led to the demise of this black nationalists party as being political repression. If the reader is to thoroughly understand the message Jones is trying to convey, they must number one understand what he means by repression. By repression Jones means government action which discriminates against a person and/or organization viewed as presenting a essential challenge to existing governmental policies. In this critique I plan to demonstrate how the misunderstood Black Panther party was systematically destroyed by dint of the following covert techniques, Political repression, legal repression, and violent repression. Upon reading Jones article the first form of repression the reader noticed is that of a political stance. Political repression is a three fold offense. One of the key attributes of political oppression is that it is subtle, someti mes even indictable. The federal government implemented techniques that were subtle, unnoticeable to the majority of ...